The Middle East

The term “Middle East” typically refers to a geographic region encompassing parts of Southwest Asia and Northeast Africa. Over time, its definition has expanded to include North Africa and occasionally the Caucasus region (such as Azerbaijan). Many countries within this region share cultural ties through common religions, societal norms, and traditions, which have influenced their classical music systems.

In this lesson, we’ll delve into the classical music systems of Azerbaijan and Egypt to uncover their shared principles and unique characteristics.

Map showing which countries are considered part of the Middle East.

Map of the Middle East. "GreaterMiddleEast2". Wikimedia Commons, the free media repository. 6 Nov 2015, Accessed 15 Jul 2017, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:GreaterMiddleEast2.png&oldid=178212605>.

**Countries that are culturally part of the Middle East**
UN Nations	Arab Maghreb (North Africa)	South Caucasus Region
Bahrain Cyprus Egypt Iran Iraq Israel Jordan Kuwait Lebanon Oman Palestine (UN Observer State) Qatar Saudi Arabia Syria Turkey United Arab Emirates Yemen	Algeria Libya Mauritania Morocco Tunisia Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic	Armenia Azerbaijan Georgia

Traditional Music Characteristics: Middle Eastern Music

The Middle East is home to diverse cultural and ethnic communities, each with unique musical traditions. Despite this diversity, many traditions are connected through the Arabic maqam modal system. Interestingly, similar systems exist across the region with comparable names: in Turkey, it’s called makam, and in Azerbaijan, it’s known as mugham.

In this lesson, we’ll explore Middle Eastern music's structural elements by examining the Arabic maqam system and the improvisational practices of Azerbaijani mugham. Below are some common characteristics found in many traditional musics of the Middle East.

Improvisation

The modal music systems in traditional Middle Eastern music serve as the foundation for melodic improvisation. In this context, improvisation means that performers create the music on the spot, composing it in real time as they play. The modal structure provides the framework for these improvisations, guiding the melody and shaping its development, much like how jazz musicians use scales and chord progressions to structure their improvisations.

"Exploring Improvisation in Jazz." YouTube. Uploaded by Jazz at Lincoln Center's JAZZ ACADEMY, 6 Oct. 2015. Accessed 11 September 2020.

Suite Form

Middle Eastern classical music often takes the form of a musical suite—a series of connected sections, each with its own style and character. Some feature vocals, others are instrumental, and each may follow a unique form.

While suites are rare in popular music, Queen's "Bohemian Rhapsody" is a relatable example, with distinct sections differing in tempo, texture, dynamics, and timbre.

Classical suites are typically much longer, with sections lasting several minutes and full performances ranging from 10 minutes to over an hour.

Queen. "Bohemian Rhapsody." YouTube. Uploaded by Queen Official, 1 August 2008. Accessed 15 July, 2017. <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fJ9rUzIMcZQ.>

Microtones

The term microtone refers to pitch frequencies that fall between the standard frequencies of the 12-tone Western tuning system. For example, the note "A" on a piano vibrates at 440 Hz, and the next note, A#, vibrates at 466.16 Hz. A microtone is any pitch frequency between these, such as 455 Hz, which would sound slightly higher than "A" but slightly lower than A#.

Because Western listeners are accustomed to specific pitch frequencies, microtonal music may sound "out of tune" or like the musician played an incorrect note. However, microtones are vital to many Middle Eastern musical traditions.

Listen to this example of a Western 12-tone scale followed by a microtonal scale with 31 tones per octave. Play it a few times to hear the differences.

Drones

Middle Eastern music often features a drone, a continuous, unchanging note that serves as a musical backdrop for other layers. Unlike harmony, which supports the melody by changing pitch, the drone remains constant and is not classified as either harmony or melody.

Listen to this example of an instrument with a built-in drone. Notice how the low background pitches stay steady while the higher pitches form a melody.

Kuzin, Bruce. "Native American-style E Minor Drone Flute." Uploaded to YouTube by 28 February 2009 by Allen Bruce Ray. Accessed 7 September 2017. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PqxQ0XqZxG4.

Ornamentation

Many classical styles of Middle Eastern music emphasize ornamentation, a technique that enhances a melody by adding extra notes such as trills, bent notes, slides, or additional tones between the main notes.

For an example of vocal ornamentation, listen to Alicia Keys' song "Fallin'." At the beginning, she adds extra notes on the word "fallin'." Similar embellishments occur on the words "oh" and "I" at 1:05 and on "fool." Throughout the song, compare moments where Alicia extends one syllable with multiple notes (ornamented) to moments where she sings one note per syllable (unornamented).

Keys, Alicia. "Fallin'." Uploaded to YouTube 25 October 2009. Accessed 11 September 2020. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Urdlvw0SSEc&ab_channel=aliciakeysVEVO

A Cappella

The term "a cappella" refers to vocal music performed without instrumental accompaniment. In Italian, it translates to "of the chapel," reflecting its roots in early religious music, which was traditionally sung without instruments.

A contemporary example of a cappella is Pentatonix, one of the most celebrated groups of the past decade. In their performances, singers often mimic instrumental timbres using only their voices. For instance, the percussion sounds you hear, created through beatboxing, are entirely vocal, not produced by a drum set.

Pentatonix. "Evolution of Music." YouTube. Uploaded 15 April 2013 by PTXofficial. Accessed 26 June 2019. www.youtube.com/watch?v=lExW80sXsHs.

Monophonic and Heterophonic Textures

Melody and melodic improvisation are central to Middle Eastern music. Unlike Western traditions, Middle Eastern ensemble music often lacks harmony. Instead, all instruments typically play melody variations or support it with a drone.

One reason for the absence of harmony is the inclusion of microtones in the music. If chords were constructed using microtones or were paired with microtonal melodies, the result could create dissonance, a sound that might feel jarring or unpleasant to listeners accustomed to Western tuning systems.

Listening Assignment: Hearing Musical Elements in Middle Eastern Music

Now that you’re familiar with these terms, practice identifying them while listening to this performance by an Arabic ensemble known as a takht. Can you pick out at least four of the musical elements discussed above?

Michigan Arab Orchestra Takht Ensemble. "Qanun Taqasim." YouTube. Uploaded 9 June 2011. Accessed 23 August 2018. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NqSKXimnl6Y.

Islam and Music in the Middle East

The Islamic religion is based on the teachings of the Prophet Mohammad as written in the Quran, the holy book of Islam, and as recorded in ahadith—reports about the Prophet's life that help interpret the Quran. Under Islamic law, things are categorized as either "halal" (permissible) or "haram" (forbidden). While many rules are explicitly outlined in the Quran, others fall into gray areas, and music is one of them.

Opinions about music within the Muslim community vary widely. Some believe all music is forbidden, while others find certain forms, like classical or religious music, acceptable. There are even devout Muslims who perform in Western-style rock bands, while others see Western music as inherently problematic.

Since the Quran does not explicitly address music, scholars often look to ahadith and the teachings of other Muslim prophets for guidance. Some scholars cite ahadith, suggesting that the Prophet Mohammad himself enjoyed music and that King David played music and sang in praise of God as evidence that music is permissible. Others disagree, referencing verses that associate musical instruments with prohibited practices like adultery and alcohol.

Further complicating the issue is the Islamic Call to Prayer and the recitation of the Quran, which are chanted in what many would consider a musical manner, even by Muslims who believe music is forbidden.

Notice how the Call to Prayer is performed a cappella, meaning without instrumental accompaniment.

"Islamic Call to Prayer." Uploaded to YouTube 6 May 2014 by Inviting People. Accessed 9 November 2019. www.youtube.com/watch?v=zBNUdeWw-wE.

These chants are not considered "music" within Islamic tradition or public opinion, despite incorporating classical elements commonly found in Arabic song traditions. Historically, while music was a significant part of pre-Islamic public, private, and religious life throughout the Middle East, professional musicians were not regarded with reverence or viewed as respectable.

The debate over the permissibility of music has led to regional, sectarian, and personal differences in its status within Islamic states. This lesson explores some of these complexities.

Haram: The Problem with Music

Islamic objections to music are easiest to grasp when considering music with un-Islamic lyrics or provocative music videos. Prohibiting music that glorifies alcohol, premarital sex, or other behaviors conflicting with Islamic law is more straightforward. However, the lines blur with questions like: What about Arabic classical music or Western classical music, such as Beethoven's? Or Sufi religious music? Is the issue rooted in the use of instruments, or is even a cappella music considered problematic?

Video Assignment: The Permissibility of Music

Please watch this video clip of a Q&A session with Islamic scholars about the permissibility of music.

When you are finished watching the video, you should be able to answer the following questions:

What was the first speaker's answer to why music should be banned, even classical instrumental music like Beethoven?
According to the second speaker, what is the only way for the "heart to find rest?"
According to the third speaker, why is music haram?
Why does the last speaker believe that the Sunnis are incorrect in their use of music?

*Note: "Shaitaan" is the word for the devil or satan.

"How can music be haram when Sufis use it to get closer to Allah?". YouTube. Uploaded by Islamic Net Video, 19 February 2015. Accessed 18 July 2017. <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3UAm3VlhKmM>.

Halal: An Argument For Music

Sufism, a mystical branch of Islam, embraces the use of music as a means to grow closer to Allah, distinguishing it from more conservative Islamic practices. A central ritual in Sufism is zikr (also spelled "dhikr"), meaning "remembrance," which helps participants recall God through acts of devotion. These acts can include ritual chants, dance, songs, and music, all aimed at inducing a heightened, ecstatic state of spiritual unity with God, known as tarab.

There are many ways to practice zikr, reflecting the diversity within Sufi traditions. One prominent example is the Whirling Dervishes of the Mevlevi order in Turkey. Their graceful, rotating dance serves as a physical expression of zikr, helping participants focus their minds and souls on Allah.

"The Whirling Dervishes - Dancing to Get Closer to God." Uploaded to YouTube 21 August 2018 by Culture Trip. Accessed 11 September 2020. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GVbd5AotD-o&ab_channel=CultureTrip

Video Assignment: Zikr and Divine Ecstasy

Please watch the following video to explore the zikr ceremony and the concept of tarab.

Take notes while watching the video to answer the following questions:

Zikr is the act of _____________________________. What is its purpose?
In a true state of zikr, one remembers ________________ with every breath.
How does one learn to achieve divine ecstasy?
Describe the music accompanying the zikr ceremony. What instruments do you hear? How does it compare to Azerbaijani mugham?
How does Sobonfu Somé respond to Phil Cousineau's question about relevance and authenticity?

"Zikr and Divine Ecstasy." Global Spirit. YouTube. Uploaded by Link TV, 22 April 2009. Accessed 17 July 2017. <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QD8uq5Z4uoU>.

The Music Ban in Afghanistan

Although the music in Afghanistan had been censored to varying degrees for many years, the ban reached unprecedented heights in 1996 when the Taliban took control of the country. Virtually all music was made illegal. The ban lasted until 2001 when the Taliban regime was toppled after the 9/11 attacks on the United States. However, the issue still persists today, as the Taliban regained control of the country in 2021 and reinstituted the ban. Punishments for violating the ban include beatings, fines, imprisonment, public humiliation, and confiscation of instruments. This has created a climate of fear and despair for musicians and artists, leading many to flee the country or pursue their craft in secret.

However, some Afghans continue to defy the ban by playing music behind closed doors or by engaging in traditional music practices in less policed areas. Exiled musicians also continue to create and share Afghan music online, in an effort to preserve their cultural heritage and raise awareness about the situation in Afghanistan.

Video Assignment: The Taliban and Music

"Taliban Calls Music Immoral, Torches Instruments in Kabul." CNN. YouTube. Uploaded by CNN, 1 August 2023. Accessed 17 August 2025. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=v-ahhC5dSZ4.

Padlet Forum

In the forum below, please engage with at least one of the following prompts. Make sure you are logged into your Padlet account before posting!

What criteria should be considered when deciding whether certain kinds of music are permissible in society?
How would you respond if music were suddenly banned in this country?
Share your thoughts about the relationship between music and Islam.
Ask a question about something you’ve learned or are curious about.
Reply thoughtfully to a classmate's post to contribute to the discussion.

Be sure your name is attached to your post!

References for Further Reading:

Ada, Šoštarić I. "On the status of music and musical instruments in Arabic culture after the advent of Islam". Muzikologija, no. 16, pp. 155-172.

Youssefzadeh, Ameneh. "The Situation of Music in Iran since the Revolution: The Role of Official Organizations". British Journal of Ethnomusicology, vol. 9, no. 2, 2000, pp 35–61.

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